Wildlife Management Practices

This chapter describes many habitat management practices that have proved to be effective. If you are interested in more practices of this type, help is available from professionals in this field. Refer to Wildlife Management Services for a list of the agencies specializing in this type of resource management.

Green Browse Plots

A green browse plot of legumes with a thin stand of grass will provide green forage for turkeys, deer and rabbits. It also will attract an abundance of insects for turkey poults and quail chicks.

Size & location

Green browse plots should be at least 1 acre in size. See "Field Measurements for Wildlife Plots". Locate plots on level ridge tops, in bottomlands or along the contour of gentle slopes. The site should be open, tillable and next to suitable cover. Placing the plot at least 50 feet from any woodland edge will reduce competition from trees and allow sunlight to reach the planting. A buffer strip of perennial weeds and woody shrubs will develop over time between the browse plot and the timber, if tall fescue is not present. For deer and turkey, green browse plots should be spaced about 1/4 mile apart or one per 40-acre area. To be effective for rabbits, however, these plots should be about 1/4 or 1/2 acre in size and about 100 yards apart.

Seed-bed preparation, liming & fertilizing

Prepare the seed bed in September or early October. The ground should be plowed and disked until no live vegetation exists. Before seeding, the plot should resemble a vegetable garden ready to be planted. Remember, there is no substitute for a well-prepared seed bed. Correct fertilization is essential for the successful establishment and long-term maintenance of the green browse plot. Before planting, obtain a soil sample from each plot site. For directions, see "How to Take a Soil Sample". Take your samples to a University Outreach and Extension office for analysis. The results of this test will show what fertilizer should be added. The Outreach and Extension agronomist can then provide recommendations for both initial fertilization and annual topdressings of fertilizer. For details on how to interpret the soil test results, see Interpreting Missouri Soil Test Reports.

Disk fertilizer and limestone into the soil at the time of seed-bed preparation. If recommendations on fertilizer amounts cannot be obtained in time for planting, the following starter application should be sufficient. Correct any deficiencies by top dressing with additional fertilizer at a later date.

Starter Fertilizer - Apply 500 pounds of 6-12-12 fertilizer per acre at the time of seed-bed preparation. This amount may be sufficient for three to four years, after which time a fertilizer top dressing may be required. This initial application will supply 30 pounds of nitrogen (N), 60 pounds of phosphorus (P205) and 60 pounds of potassium (K20) per acre.

Lime - If the site has never been limed, apply agricultural limestone at the rate of 3-4 tons per acre. A soil test will indicate whether the soil pH needs to be regulated by adding more limestone.

Seeding

Each 1-acre green browse plot should be uniformly seeded with a half bushel (30 pounds) of winter wheat and 2 pounds of orchard grass at the time of seed-bed preparation (late September or early October). At the same time or in early winter, half of the plot should be overseeded with 2 pounds of ladino clover and 2 pounds of red clover. The following spring (January-March), the other half is overseeded with 10 pounds of lespedeza, which can be Korean, Kobe, Summit or a mixture of these. The lespedeza will provide seed for quail and green forage for other wildlife during the summer when clovers may become dormant.

Maintenance & protection

Mow the plots each year between July 1 and July 15 to reduce any unwanted weeds, using either a rotary or sickle mower. Renovate and reseed the plot in three to four years, if the grasses or weeds have crowded out the legumes. For maximum value to wildlife, plantings must be protected from excessive grazing. Light grazing to remove about one-half of the growth during the last half of June is desirable in lieu of mowing; however, do not graze during the fall or winter months.

Annual Grain Food Plots

Many wildlife species depend on and prefer native weed seeds and wild fruits for winter food. When ice and snow cover these natural food sources, wildlife will then benefit from standing grain. High-quality food can be provided by planting small grains in properly located food plots. Grain plots with soybeans or other legumes will attract insects and provide seed and succulent green browse that quail chicks, deer, turkey and many songbirds will use.

Size of the grain food plot

A grain food plot should be at least 1/2 acre in size. Smaller plots will not supply enough food for the long winter months. See Field Measurements for Wildlife Plots for details on how to measure your wildlife plot.

Each year, plant half of this area (1/4 acre) with grain and allow the other half to grow weeds for seed and cover. The following year, plant the "weedy" part and allow the first half to grow weeds. This rotation will provide native seeds for food, some bare ground for dusting and standing grain for emergency food. It also will make better use of the fertilizer that you have applied.

The shape is not really important; however, an irregularly shaped plot with "islands" of good cover within the planted area is better than a rectangular plot.

Location & protection

Grain food plots must be located near brushy draws, in corners of shrubby fence rows and along edges of wooded areas. Old fields or idle areas are excellent sites. Brush piles can be added for escape cover, and weeds should be allowed to grow. At least six brush piles about 15 feet in diameter should be located around each grain food plot. See Brush-Pile construction for Escape Cover for details on how to construct bush piles.

Caution: Livestock must be excluded if the grain plot is to be of any value to wildlife. Also, after frost or drought, grain sorghum can be poisonous to livestock. For these reasons, grain food plots should be fenced or located in ungrazed areas.

Number of plots to plant

As a rule, one grain plot for every 40 acres of farmland is a minimum. On farms where grain crops are grown, fewer plots are necessary if crop residue and some grain is left standing next to cover. More plots, however, would be required on a pasture farm where no grain is produced.

Seed-bed preparation & planting time

Grains must be planted in a clean-tilled seed bed. The ground should be plowed and disked in early spring until no live vegetation remains, and it resembles a vegetable garden before planting. The fertilizer and limestone should be worked into the soil at this time. Planting time for most of Missouri is between May 10 and June 20, depending on the amount of spring rainfall and other local factors.

Fertilizer & lime

The 1/4-acre plot should be treated with at least 150 pounds of 12-12-12 (or 13-13-13) fertilizer at the time of seed-bed preparation. Fertilize larger plots accordingly. This amount will nearly equal the nitrogen used by the grain crop and will more than replace the phosphorous and potassium. This is a general recommendation when the results of a soil test are not available. If time permits, use soil test results to determine fertilizer and lime requirements. See "How To Take a Soil Sample" and "Interpreting Missouri Soil Test Reports".

Limestone is added to regulate the active soil acidity, or pH, which affects the availability of many other soil nutrients. Grain sorghum grows best in a soil pH of 6 to 6.5. If the soil test shows a pH of around 5, for example, a 1/4-acre plot will require approximately 3/4-1 ton of crushed limestone. Should the pH be near 6, only 400 to 500 pounds of limestone will be needed.

Kinds of grain to plant

Sorghum (milo) seeds are rich in energy, persistent on the plant and usually available to wildlife when other seeds are covered by snow or ice. If only one grain is to be planted, grain sorghum will give the best results. Plant grain sorghum at the rate of 4 pounds per 1/4-acre plot (or 8 pounds per 1/2 acre and 16 pounds per acre).

Caution: Planting too much seed will result in competition between the plants and will reduce the amount of grain produced. The above seeding rates will allow the production of both grain and beneficial weeds that supply food and cover.

Field Measurements for Wildlife Plots

These measurements will define an area of approximately 1/4 acre. For larger plots, multiply one of the numbers of a pair by: 2 = 1/2 acre; 3 = 3/4 acre; and 4 = an approximate acre. For a field corner plot, measure along each fence (or axis) 150 feet from the corner post, and then connect the two points.

Grass/Legume Mixtures Beneficial to Wildlife

Note: For quick cover on erosive sites, 8-10 pounds of annual or perennial ryegrass may be used with any of the above mixtures.

Plantings Beneficial to Wildlife

Rate = Bulk pounds per acre. Use high rate when broadcasting.

Note: The following plants could have a negative impact on wildlife habitat due to their aggressiveness and growth characteristics: birdsfoot trefoil, any Old World bluestems (such as Caucasian), crownvetch, fescue, reed canary grass, sericea lespedeza and sweet clover. Contact an agency specialist for details.

Fencing to Protect Wildlife Food & Cover

Fencing is costly but important when managing farmland for wildlife. Fences help protect wildlife food and cover from grazing livestock. Woven wire or four strands of barbed wire will contain or exclude most livestock. Line posts of either steel or treated wood should be set 15-20 feet apart. If the livestock is not too aggressive, a less expensive "suspension" or three-wire division fence may be adequate. In this situation, the line posts can be set 30-50 feet apart, with wire stays at 10- foot intervals. Barbed wire is purchased in 1/4-mile rolls (1,320 feet or 80 rods). To help you determine how much wire you will need to fence four sides of an area, see chart below.

Brush-Pile Construction for Escape Cover

Nearly all animals need cover so they can escape from predators, rest in safety, nest and raise their young. What constitutes suitable cover depends on the wildlife species. Some animals use hollow trees, while others use brushy areas and dense stands of grass. To several species of small mammals, ground-nesting birds, amphibians and reptiles, brush piles represent an important type of cover. Brush piles located in the right places bring the quickest response of all the management tools. Rabbits often take over a brush pile the night after construction.

Proper placement of brush piles allows relatively safe access to food sources and permits wildlife to forage over a larger area. Brush piles should be placed at intervals near feeding areas, along field borders and within idle fields or abandoned areas. Avoid the bottoms of drainages and low spots where standing water might render the brush pile useless.

A brush pile should be constructed on a base of larger materials that will provide tunnels and openings at ground level. Three types of bases work particularly well: 1) large pole-size logs, 2) piles of rocks and 3) stumps.

First, lay four poles measuring 6 feet by 6 inches on the ground, parallel to one another and about a foot apart. Then lay four more perpendicularly across the first four. If rocks are used, they should be at least 12 inches in diameter and piled in stacks about 2 feet high. Make three stacks, one at each corner of a triangle. An optional, but effective, part of a good brush pile would be a sheet of discarded roofing tin or an old car hood placed across this base material.

When either of these bases is in place, stack limbs and brush, using the large limbs first, until the pile is 6-8 feet tall and at least 15 feet wide. If poles or rock are not available, pile the limbs and brush against or over a relatively high stump.

"Living" brush piles may be constructed for long-lasting shelter. These are created by cutting partway through small trees and shrubs so that the tops fall to the ground, but enough stem remains uncut on each tree to keep it alive. If the trees are cut to fall in a crisscross pattern over each other, a living brush pile is created. Brush piles of this type are loosely formed and do not give the best protection from severe weather. They can be made denser by using the bases of the cut trees as foundations and piling dead limbs and brush over them. Care should be taken to leave the live tops of the cut trees uncovered so they will continue to grow. Either deciduous trees and shrubs or conifers may be used. Grapevines should be encouraged to grow over the brush pile for added cover.

Discarded Christmas trees, without the tinsel, make ideal brush piles that will last for several years. To make them even more effective, place an old skid or similar material on the ground and then pile enough Christmas trees on top to make a pile about the size of pickup truck.

Regardless of the type, brush piles add a valuable dimension to the wildlife habitat on your land. If properly located and constructed, they will provide important wildlife cover for many years. It should be noted, however, that brush piles are not permanent structures. Rot and decay will quickly reduce the effectiveness of a brush pile. To provide adequate escape cover, brush piles must be added to your management area on an annual basis.

Squirrel Den Box

Studies of leaf nests and dens, show that each pair of squirrels requires three dens - one for the male, one for the female and another in which the young are born. The pair will live in one den until just before birth of the young. At this time, the female evicts the male, who then needs an additional den or nest. After the young leave the nest, the male rejoins his mate. The young require more dens; and if none are available, they will either migrate to another area or will be eliminated by predators.

Other animals that commonly use squirrel den boxes are kestrels, screech owls, honeybees, some woodpeckers and even black rat snakes. Crested flycatchers and other songbirds have been known to nest in squirrel den boxes.

Construction

Scrap lumber of nearly any kind can be used to build a squirrel den box. Exterior-grade plywood may be used, but squirrels may gnaw on the box and damage it. Treated lumber also is acceptable. The main items to consider during construction are the cavity size and entrance hole. The cavity should be a minimum of 6 x 6 x 20 inches, and the entrance hole must be at least 3 inches in diameter and located about 2 inches from the top. The hole is located on a side that will be next to the tree trunk; however, squirrels will use the box no matter where the hole is located. The top must be weatherproof, and the bottom should have four or five small drain holes. Experience has shown that the bottom will deteriorate within about five years unless the box is cleaned at least every third year. The bottom or top may be hinged to allow cleaning. Before hanging the box, place about 3 inches of dry sawdust or leaves in the bottom to encourage its use.

A good cypress or cedar den box will last 10 years or more and furnish a home for about 20 squirrel families, or nearly 75 squirrels, in a decade of full use.

Installation

The box should be placed on a tree at a height of 10-30 feet. Use No. 9 aluminum, copper or galvanized wire to avoid rusting. If this is not available, a heavy coat hanger will do nicely.

Note: Several existing plans recommend that the wire pass through the box and then around the tree trunk. Experience has shown that the growth of the tree will crush the box within a few years.

A better and easier method to install the box is to pass the wire through holes next to the top of the box. Make a loop on each end of the wire. Hang the box from two nails driven into the tree trunk. Squirrels don't seem to mind if their new home swings in the breeze a bit. Use aluminum nails if possible and bend them over the wire. Face the hole toward the south or east, away from prevailing winter winds. Boxes placed at or near the edge of large forests are more attractive to fox squirrels, and those placed well within a densely wooded area will attract gray squirrels. Construction of squirrel den boxes makes a fine home-shop project during the winter months, and the boxes can be installed at any time during the year.

How to Take a Soil Sample

For routine testing of the soil to determine lime requirements, organic matter and the amounts of available nutrients in the plow layer (upper 7 inches), use the following procedure. A good first step is to obtain a Soil Survey map of your area. These maps are available from the Natural Resources Conservation Service office in your county. If a map is not available, draw a sketch of the farm and the individual fields for a reference. On the map or sketch, divide your farm into fields or soil types. Within an identified field or soil type, outline several 5- to 10-acre sampling sites. Within each site, take from 15 to 20 soil samples; then combine these samples into one larger sample for each site. Number these site samples and record the numbers on the map or sketch. See illustration below. Samples should be taken to a depth of 7 inches, using a spade, trowel, auger or soil tube. If you use a spade, dig a V-shaped hole to the plow depth and remove a 1/2-inch thick slice of soil from one side of the hole. Then trim from each side of the spade all but a thin ribbon of soil down the center of the spade face. Collect both the "slice" and the "ribbon" as the sample. Air dry the sample, but do not use heat. When the sample is dry, mix it thoroughly and remove about a half pint of the soil for testing. Take your soil samples to a University Outreach and Extension office for analysis. A small fee will be charged for each sample. Be prepared to furnish information on the field's history of cropping, liming and fertilizing. Include the soil type listed in the Soil Survey, which is available from the Natural Resources Conservation Service. Keep the results of soil tests with your wildlife or farm plan for future reference. Soil test results can be interpreted by your University Outreach and Extension agronomist, Natural Resources Conservation Service district conservationist or agricultural supply dealer. Guide sheet No. G9112 from University Outreach and Extension is helpful. Also see "Interpretation of Soil Test Results" below.

Interpreting Missouri Soil Test Reports

The Missouri Soil Test Report is an important tool in making management decisions for crop and forage production. However, inability to interpret the results often limits the usefulness of the report. This information should help you interpret the soil test report form and make it more useful in your farming operation. Each section of the sample report on MO Soil Test Report is indicated by a letter. An explanation of the section is given after the corresponding letter below.

A: FIELD INFORMATION - Contains information that helps you identify this soil test report from others you may receive. This information includes the field name or number, field size, etc.

B: SOIL TEST INFORMATION - Contains the analytical results of the sample you submitted for testing. The regular soil analysis shows the soil pH, along with amounts of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, organic matter, neutralizable acidity and exchange capacity. Analyses for certain other factors can be made upon request at additional charge.

C: RATING - Gives a rating for the pH and certain other factors shown in section B. The ratings identify deficiencies or excesses of the factors tested.

D: SUGGESTED ANNUAL TREATMENTS - Contains three parts: cropping options (Section E), yield goal (Section F), and fertilizer recommendations (Section G). Each of these parts is described below.

E: CROPPING OPTIONS - Lists crops for which you requested fertilizer recommendations. You can request up to four different recommendations for the same crop or single recommendations for up to four different crops. You can get recommendations for other crops later without taking another soil sample. This update can be done at your local University Outreach and Extension office after you receive your lab report.

F: YIELD GOAL - Shows the level of production you desire for the crops listed in Section E, "Cropping Options." The yield goal you choose should be based on soil type, field history, management ability and economic considerations.

G: POUNDS PER ACRE - Lists the fertilizer recommendations for the crops and yield goals listed in Sections E and F. The recommendations are reported as pounds of N (nitrogen), P2O5 (phosphate) and K2O (potash) per acre. The fertilizer recommendation for the crop is a combination of the nutrients removed with each harvest, plus additional fertilizer to build the soil to a medium level with applications over four to eight years. The recommendation is based on the soil sample analysis.

H: LIMESTONE SUGGESTIONS - Gives the suggested amount of limestone needed to raise soil pH to an optimum level for the crops listed in Section E. The limestone recommendation is given for the crop in Section E that requires the highest pH range. For example, if a cool-season grass and alfalfa were both listed in Section E, the limestone recommendation would be for alfalfa since it requires a higher pH. The recommendation is reported as pounds of ENM (effective neutralizing materials) per acre. To determine the amount of lime needed in tons per acre simply divide the ENM value by the ENM guarantee of your lime dealer. For example, if the soil test ENM requirement is 800 pounds per acre and the lime quarry guarantees 400 pounds ENM per ton of limestone, you need 2 tons of limestone per acre (800/400 = 2). Limestone is applied to neutralize soil acidity and increase pH. It does contain calcium, but its main use is to neutralize acidity. Dolomitic limestone contains appreciable amounts of magnesium and often is used on soils deficient in magnesium. Some liming materials have higher ENM ratings than calcitic limestone. Applied limestone may take as long as one year to correct soil acidity problems.

I: SPECIAL NOTES - These notes at the bottom of the soil test report will help you with interpretation of your test results and use of the recommendations.

Missouri Soil Test Report (completed form)

Soil test results can be interpreted by your University Outreach and Extension agronomist, Natural Resources Conservation Service district conservationist or agricultural supply dealer.

Establishing Native Warm-Season Grasses

With the exceptions of switch grass and eastern gamma grass, most of the native warm-season grasses produce fluffy seed. For this reason, warm-season grass seed should be purchased and planted on a pure live seed, or PLS, basis. PLS is determined by adding the percent germination and the percent dormant seed, and then multiplying by the percent purity. These values will be shown on the seed tag or will be available from the seed dealer. Details of this calculation and a chart to determine the amount of bulk seed to plant are given on page 80 in the section on how to calculate pure live seed. Because of their fluffy character, most warm-season grass seeds will not flow through a regular grain drill. Special grass drills have been developed that will accommodate this type of seed. Some of these drills may be available for loan or rent from various agricultural agencies (usually the local Soil and Water Conservation District office) throughout the state. Smaller acreages can be successfully seeded by hand broadcasting seed onto a rolled seed bed, followed by rolling twice with a heavy smooth roller.

Since this seed tends to be expensive when compared to other grass seeds, you will want to use the best planting methods available. Both studies and experience have shown that planting in a clean-tilled or conventional seed bed is the best method for normal conditions. Minimum or no-till seeding methods also have produced good stands of native grass, if the correct chemicals were used to kill the existing sod and to control any annual grass competition. You should consult with local agency personnel for the current information on seeding methods, seeding dates, chemical weed control and stand management.

Seeding Rates for Planting Native Warm-Season Grasses

Rate = Pounds per acre, Pure Live Seed (PLS)

See PLS Calculation on page 80. Rates below are according to USDA-NRCS specifications. Use higher rates when broadcasting or using grain drills.

Pure Stands for Hay and/or Pasture
Eastern gama grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 to 10
(Pete, Shepherd's, PMK-24, Iuka IV)
Switch grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 to 6
(Upland = Blackwell, Cave-in-rock, Trailblazer)
(Lowland = Alamo, Kanlow, Missouri native)

For Hay and/or Pasture
Big bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 to 6
(Missouri native, Kaw or Roundtree)
Indian grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.0 to 2.9
(Cheyenne, Osage, Nebraska 54, Rumsey)
Eastern gama grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 to 3
(Pete, Shepherd's, PMK-24, Iuka IV)
Little bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.6 to 2.4
(Missouri native, Aldous)

or

Big bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 to 6
(Missouri native, Kaw or Roundtree)
Indian grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 to 4.4
(Cheyenne, Osage, Nebraska 54, Rumsey)
Eastern gama grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 to 4.5
(Pete, Shepherd's, PMK-24, Iuka IV)

Mixtures Most Beneficial for Wildlife

Purchase seeds harvested from Missouri remnant prairies if available. Wildlife plantings should not be dense stands, compared to pasture and hay plantings. Native legumes
and forbs should be added to provide more plant diversity.

No. 1
Big bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.6 to 2.4
(Missouri native, Kaw or Roundtree)
Indian grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 to 7.0
(Cheyenne, Osage, Nebraska 54, Rumsey)
Eastern gama grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.8 to 1.1
(Pete, Shepherd's, PMK-24, Iuka IV)
Annual lespedeza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 to 0.8

No. 2
Big bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 to 1.8
(Missouri native, Kaw or Roundtree)
Indian grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.8 to 1.0
(Cheyenne, Osage, Nebraska 54, Rumsey)
Little bluestem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.8 to 5.8
(Missouri native, Aldous)
Sideoats grama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 to 1.7
(Missouri native, El Reno)

and

Native forbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25
or Annual lespedeza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 to 2.2
or Alfalfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 to 2.2

How to Calculate "Pure Live Seed"

Most seeding rates in the past have been listed in pounds of seed per acre. These rates have not been reliable because they do not take into account the viability of the seed. In addition, native warm-season grasses tend to be "chaffy" and bulky compared to domestic crop seeds, such as wheat or corn. In the case of native grasses, calculation of "pure live seed," or PLS, is necessary to avoid paying for material other than seed.

Calculation Method: (formula) % PLS = percent pure seed x (% germination + % dormant seed) Example - The tag from a bag of Summit lespedeza seed lists the following information, which can be used to calculate PLS. See below.

The percent PLS for the above lot of seed would be: 84%
% PLS = .99 x (.75 + .10)
% PLS = .99 x .85 = 84%

Pure Live Seed

To determine percent of pure live seed, locate the number where the appropriate
row and column meet.

Bulk Seed Required

To determine the amount of bulk seed required, locate the % PLS of the seed to be planted in the left column and the desired PLS planting rate in the top row. The bulk rate will be the number where the row and column meet.

Developing Wetlands

Many areas in Missouri could be developed into productive wetlands with little expense. As a landowner, your first consideration should be the overall objective for the wetland. This objective will influence both the development and management of the wetland. For example, if the objective is to benefit migrating waterfowl and to provide hunting opportunities, the wetland must be designed and managed to provide a seasonally constant (fall and early spring) water level and a sufficient quantity and quality of food to attract waterfowl. This usually requires a water-control system. However, if the wetland will be used mainly for water filtration, natural flooding will accomplish this objective.

Before selecting the final site, you should consult someone with experience in wetland development and construction. Conservation Department personnel can inform you of any restrictions or permits that might be required before construction begins. They also will be aware of any cost-share programs that might be available.

Actually, many wetland areas in Missouri need only be identified, preserved and protected. In such cases there is no development cost.

Site selection

Site selection is critical. The topography, soil type, water source and overall objective for the wetland will influence the final site selection. The topography, or lay of the land, should be flat enough to allow shallow flooding of an area large enough to be functional. The soil must have the capacity to hold water.

Potential sites include areas below ponds or lakes, which provide excellent water sources. Extremely wet areas in fields often can be converted back to wildlife-beneficial wetlands. If the crops in an area are ruined by floods in one year or more out of 10, it may be better to eliminate this income risk by restoring the area to a wetland.

A good water source at the site is a very important consideration because a wetland cannot function without water. Your intended use of the wetland will dictate the quantity of water needed and the timing of delivery. The water can come from underground sources, such as wells or springs, or from ponds, lakes or streams. Pumping water from underground sources can be expensive but will usually provide dependable water levels. If the water comes from natural sources or intermittent flooding, flood frequency and flooding heights of the adjacent stream must be considered.

Wetland construction

Once you have selected an appropriate site, development of the wetland can begin. Some wetlands may only require repair of natural levees, but others may need more extensive levee construction. Levee design will be determined by the intended use of the wetland and the topography of the site.

Levees should be built to a height of at least 18 inches above the water line. This amount of "freeboard" will prevent destruction of the levee by wave action and water saturation. Usually a 3:1 slope is adequate on small levees; but if the levee will be subjected to overtopping by flood waters, a 6:1 slope should be used. The levee should be wide enough to allow maintenance of the top and side slopes. Riprapping the shoreline with rocks will prevent damage from burrowing animals. Levees should be constructed away from stream banks to reduce erosion by the stream.

The type of water-level control device you install will be influenced by the intended use of the wetland and by the water source. A water-control structure typically consists of a culvert and a gate device to stop the flow of water. Various types of gates are available. Choose one to fit your specific situation.

A stop-log gate, Fig.1, and screw-gate valve, Fig. 2, can be used to control water flow for a wetland situated below a pond. The Natural Resources Conservation Service and the Conservation Department can provide technical help in building these structures.

Wood Duck Nest Box

Wood ducks nest from mid-February to mid-March in Missouri. Their eggs are laid in tree cavities, which are often high above the ground, or in man-made nest boxes. A dozen eggs is an average clutch, and incubation is about 32 days. Ducklings leave the nest immediately after hatching. Free falls of up to 40 feet apparently do them no harm. First flight is at about nine weeks. One brood per year is normal, but two broods can occur in southern Missouri. Early foods are primarily insects, but later these ducks will eat vegetable foods. They winter in the lower Mississippi Valley. Although these nesting boxes are intended primarily for wood ducks, other species of wildlife may find them attractive for homes. Possible users include owls, kestrels, woodpeckers, hooded mergansers and even a honeybee swarm or two. All of these are important parts of the wildlife scene in Missouri wetlands.

Construction and installation

No man-made nesting device for waterfowl has gone through more design changes than that for the beautiful wood duck. Early types were usually made of wood, but newer models are constructed predominately of plastics or metal. Each box should have a 6-inch wide strip of 1/4- inch hardware cloth or screen wire stapled inside, from the bottom to the hole, so the ducklings can climb out. Lakes, ponds and marshes throughout the state are potential production sites for wood ducks. We recommend that all wood duck boxes be erected over water, using steel or wooden posts with predator-proof metal cones or sleeves. Place the post in water 2-4 feet deep and as far from the shoreline as possible at this depth. The bottom of the box should be no lower than 4 feet from the water surface, and higher if possible. If the water level fluctuates radically during floods or heavy rainfall, the box should be mounted above the high-water elevation. Be sure to place 6 inches of wood shavings or sawdust in the box. Boxes may be erected in the winter when ice is thick enough to safely support the person who is driving the posts.

Bluebird Nest Box

Bluebirds are year-round residents of Missouri and the official state bird. Many types and styles of bluebird nest boxes will be accepted by a mated pair of birds.

Construction

Access from the top is usually better because those boxes that open from the side or front may result in fledglings prematurely flying from the nest at inspection time. The top may be mounted on a hinge, or a 1/2-inch dowel may be substituted for the hold-down strip for the roof. If the beveled corners on the bottom are omitted, drill four 1/4- inch holes for drainage. Note that the front edges of the sides are 1/8-inch shorter than the nest box front. The resulting crack provides ventilation. The 1 1 /2-inch hole size is important, since it helps to keep out starlings and cowbirds. If woodpeckers or squirrels enlarge the hole, replace the front panel or patch it with a piece of wood with a 1 1 /2-inch hole. Painting is not necessary, but if you do paint, light gray or tan is preferred.

Installation & maintenance

Bluebirds usually begin nesting in the first half of March. These birds lay from three to six light blue, sometimes white, eggs. The incubation period is about 14 days, and the young birds fly from the nest about 16 days after hatching. Clean out the box as soon as the young have left, and the chances are good that the adults will use the box again. Two and three broods per year are common, and five broods have been documented in south Missouri. If the box is not cleaned, the pair will simply build their new nest on top of the old, causing the young birds to be more accessible through the entrance hole. Many bluebirds spend the winter in Missouri, so it is a good idea to leave the last nest for insulation.

If you take the time to build and install a bluebird nest box, you also should maintain it on a regular basis. After a pair has accepted a nest box, bluebirds are not easily driven away by your presence. You should inspect the nest box on a 12- to 15-day interval. Gently open the box and remove any unwanted guests, such as tree frogs, wasps, spiders or ants. Sparrows can be a problem, too. Tear out their nests, and temporarily plug the hole until they move elsewhere. Predators, such as cats, raccoons and snakes, can destroy nests. An inverted metal cone or a metal sleeve can help keep these animals from nests. Steel fence posts or pipes coated with grease will help discourage predators.

Mount your nest boxes 4-6 feet high on posts. Avoid installing them on trees and power-line poles. Face the entrance toward the nearest large tree or shrub. If you put up more than one box, space them at least 100 yards apart because bluebirds are very territorial. Bluebirds like open or lightly wooded country, but don't be afraid to place one near your residence. They seem to like being around people. Pastures with wooded draws or scattered trees are ideal. New subdivisions, cemeteries, golf courses, farmsteads and road rights-of-way are all good areas on which to install boxes.

This nest box is designed for bluebirds, but it may be used by wrens, chickadees, titmice, tree swallows or even flying squirrels. If you want to attract these species, place the box in trees 10 to 15 feet above the ground in wooded areas. Place this nest box on poles or in dead trees located in or over water to attract tree swallows and prothonotary warblers.

Windbreaks benefits

The following information will help you decide whether or not a windbreak would be useful on your property; and if so, how to plan and maintain the right windbreak for your needs.

The most obvious benefit of a well-planned windbreak is protection from wind. Depending on the plant species and the density or thickness of the windbreak, wind velocities can be significantly decreased on the downwind side for distances of 10-20 times the height of the trees. This amount of wind reduction can:

• Reduce wind chill and home heating bills by 15-20 percent.
• Increase crop yields in protected fields up to 18-22 percent by buffering moisture-sapping summer winds.
• Improve livestock performance by buffering winter winds and providing shade in summer.
• Reduce pond, dam and shoreline erosion.
• Block direct snow deposits because drifting snow is deposited within 60 feet downwind of the windbreak.

Windbreaks provide many other benefits to the home, farm and field. Besides reducing wind velocity, they also:

• Benefit crop production by attracting insect-eating birds.
• Reduce noise, dust and pollution.
• Provide food and cover for many species of wildlife.
• Provide a source of nuts, berries, firewood and Christmas trees, depending on the tree and shrub species selected.
• Add beauty to the area

Establishing a windbreak

Proper planning and design are important for establishing a windbreak that will meet specific needs. Windbreak planning and design should be carried out in the fall. Sources for tree and shrub seedlings should be lined up in the fall or winter, and seedlings should be planted in early spring.

Windbreaks can be established with trees, shrubs, grasses or any combination of these. Hardwood or deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in the fall, are not as effective as evergreen species for wind protection; however, even the bare limbs reduce wind velocities. Some advantages of hardwood species are that they are hardier, make faster growth and are taller at maturity than evergreens. For these reasons, the use of both evergreens and hardwood trees in windbreaks is recommended, providing each can be given adequate space to grow.

Rows 1 & 5: Black haw, deciduous holly, redbud, blackberry, gray dogwood, hazelnut, aromatic sumac and gooseberry Rows 2 & 4: Hawthorn, persimmon, red cedar, serviceberry and Jack pine Row 3: Pin oak, northern red oak, shingle oak, white pine, green ash, shortleaf pine, yellow poplar, pecan, burr oak, swamp white oak and red pine

The diagram below shows the planting arrangement of a hardwood and evergreen windbreak. The staggered row arrangement gives best coverage.

Row 1: shrubs
Row 2: med. trees
Row 3: tall trees
Row 4: med. trees
Row 5: shrubs

As a rule, five-row windbreaks - as shown in the figure above - are the most effective. However, an acceptable windbreak can be developed by planting rows 1, 2 and 3. Other considerations in windbreak planning and maintenance are: Locate windbreaks 100 feet from the area to be protected if possible.

• Locate windbreaks for winter wind protection on the north and west sides of the area to be protected, and plant evergreens in at least two of the windbreak rows.
• Locate summer windbreaks on the south and west sides of the area to be protected, and plant deciduous trees in at least two of the windbreak rows.
• Control weeds and grasses within the windbreak plantings until trees and shrubs become fully established - up to five years, depending on how fast the seedlings grow.
• Protect plantings from livestock trampling and grazing. Fencing may be necessary.
• When planting, make sure the roots of the seedlings are spread out and not curled up in the planting hole.
• Do not fertilize the seedling trees and shrubs in the first and second years of establishment. Fertilization with a 12/12/12 fertilizer beginning in the third growing season is appropriate.
• For maximum survival and growth, water new seedlings to a depth of 6 inches once per week in the absence of significant rainfall during the first, second and third growing seasons.

Contact our local Conservation Department or University Outreach and Extension office for more details.